An Analysis Of Drug Dealing Criminology Essay

An Analysis Of Drug Dealing Criminology Essay A drug is a substance that influences biological processes is too inclusive. Broadly speaking, is any substance that, when absorbed into the body of a living organism, alters normal bodily function. There is no single, precise definition, as there are different meanings in drug control law, government regulations, medicine, and colloquial usage. Definition may be more or less useful according to a specific setting or context. For drugs three such contexts come to mind: medical utility, psycho activity and illegality. The medical utility definition regards a drug as a substance that is used by physicians to treat the body or mind .Obviously, the medical definition contains both an objective and a subjective element. In order for a drug to be used medically, we assume that it does something to the body that is, it acts as a healing agent. This is its objective reality. But in addition a drug has to be recognized as therapeutically useful by physicians, which may not take place even if it works as a therapeutic agent. Controversy may exist with respect to whether some drugs are medically useful. For instance as of this writing, marijuana is recognized and legitimated as medicine in 10 states but not the other 40 and it is not so recognized by the federal government , heroin can be used as a painkiller in the United kingdom but not in the United states. This is the subjectively or socially constructed side of the medical definition of how drugs are defined. For explaining drug dealing I am using thre e different theories which we have discussed in the course term one. Three theories are 1) The classical school, 2) The Chicago school and 3) subcultures. The classical school: The central themes of the Classical school are not really part of Criminology. The classical school was largely inspired by the notion that society was governed by a social contract. This emphasised the importance of free will so that criminal behaviour was the result of a rational choice. Society had the rights to punish offenders and it was considered that doing so would have a different effect. In the eighteenth century so called classical thinking emerged largely in response to the arbitrary and cruel forms of punishment that continued to dominate. Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham two of the most important enlightenment thinkers in this area through coming from very different philosophical position. Both sought to limit the barbarity of eighteenth century system of justice. Beccarias general theorem is that a punishment may not be an act of violence of one or of many against a private member of society, it should be public immediate and necessary the least possible in the case given p roportionate to the crime and determined by the laws  [1]  . Successful deterrence in Beccaries view first of all required punishment to be certain. The more likely one is to be punished for ones action, the less likely one is to engage in deviant behaviour. The law must be clear and must be enforced consistently. Second, the swiftness of the punishment also has a positive impact on the violation of rules .Third, the severity of the punishment must be significant enough to deter further misconduct but no more severe than is necessary to bring about the effect  [2]  . Although the drug is used for some purposes benefit to the society like as medical purpose but the misuse pf drug can be traced in the human society from earlier. It has a great destructive effect on the society particularly on the young society as they are the most vulnerable victims of so called drug dealing. The impact of drug dealings plays a very dominant rule on the society as the abuse of misuse of drug i s capable of affecting the route on the society. The increasing impact of misuse of drug can be found in different society and in different part of the world. So drug dealing is widely recognised as an offence under different jurisdiction in the world. We should have paid more concern relating to the matter of that, how can we deal with this problem of misuse of drug. On the one hand we must ensure that proper punishment of the offenders, where as this is also important to ensure all basic rights of the offender as per direction of classical school and other theories. An offender must not be punished for others act. The law relating drug dealing must be clear and must be enforce consistently .However we need to keep it in our mind that our purpose not to punish and punish against the offenders. But put an impact of this punishment on the society thats why the people can understand easily what would happen if they commit any crime. According to the Beccaria: the end of punishment therefore is no others than to prevent the criminal from doing further injury to society and to prevent others from committing the like offence. Such punishments therefore and such a mode of inflicting them ought to be chosen as will make the strongest and most lasting impression on the minds of others with the least torment to the body of the criminal. British philosopher Jeremy Bentham adopted some of the ideas from the classical approach to punishment. He regarded our own system of punishment s as illogical and called for the introduction of a more precise and wholly enforced criminal code of 1792.Benthams theory is that human behaviour is generally directed at maximising pleasure and avoiding pain. Individuals broke the law, he felt in order to gain excitement, money, sex or something else that was valued. There were some difference s between Beccaria and Bentham. Both rejected the death penalty, through Bentham argued that it could be used in cases of murder arguing that in almost all cases its negative consequence outweighed any positive ones that might ensue. Bentham was a firm believer in the efficacy of the prison. According to Bentham the social action should be guided by the objective of ensuring the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Since misuse of drug is destructive of the whole society, so this is a criminal offence and not merely an offence against morality. This why the punishment of drug dealer must be ensured in such a manner which can be cited as a good example for society . A gain as like as Beccaria punishment are viewed by Bentham as essentially negative and they, therefore, must be restricted so as only to produce desired outcome. The punishment should be proportionate o the crime committed and must not be exceeding the limit to the crime committed. The Chicago school: In the 1930s a branch of urban sociology often referred to as the Chicago school of human ecology opened up a new approach to explaining crime. This school grew from the ideas of Robert park, who suggested there were parallels between communities of human and those of plants and animals. Park adopted some of his central concepts from biology .Chicago university has a special place in the history of criminology. Chicago was Americas second largest city and it was undergoing rapid and significant change. Half of the population of Chicago in 1900 has been born outside the USA.A city compromised several natural areas with characteristics blended from their ethnic composition, socio economic make up and physical surrounding. Patterns of change in the city paralleled changes in balance of nature. They were influenced by economic competition for space and the urban environment was affected by a process of invasion, dominance and succession. Park viewed the human population in American citie s as being migratory rather than fixed. Two members of the Chicago Shaw and Henry Mckay developed the ecological model using it as the basis for a wide ranging study of juvenile delinquency in Chicago and other American cities. For Chicago they divided the city into 140 areas of one square mile each and mapped the residences of recorded delinquents. They also divided Chicago into concentric zones and calculated the percentage of the juvenile population resident in the areas and zones. Shaw and Mckay suggested that community problems were concentrated close to the centre of the citys centre core and rates declined radically. The highest rates occurred in areas where buildings were in decay where economic status was lowest and where there were greater concentrations of recently arrived families similar results were found in American. Chicago law school represent one of the most dynamic theory of modern criminology. The finding the shaw and Mckey subjected that community problems were concentrated close to the centre of the city. The highest rate of diligence residence was found close to the city canter core and rules declined residence. According to shaw and Mckey the socio economic condition place a dominant rule behind any kind of offence. However the authenticity of this statement can also be found at a close look in the shaws and Mckeys theory . The tendency to commit any drug related offence is higher in poor and urban society than residential area. A s we know over 80% of total production of opium is being produce in Afghanistan where the socio economic condition is so poor. They are suffering from hunger and poverty which produce a fertile land for growing opium. A close attention may also reveal that potential customer of illegal drugs is much higher in the cities and the urban area rather than in residen tial area. The authenticity of this argument is proven by Shaw and Mckeys theory. Chicago law school theory also confirmed the process of invention dominance, succession is said to lead to break down of social equilibrium. Subcultures: The sub cultural explanation offered by Cloward and Ohlin extends part of Mertons theory and also incorporates some aspect of cultural transmission . Cloward and Ohlin considered that many young boys would suffer from problems of adjustment and frustrated ambition. Some would look for deviant solution .Cloward and Ohlin added a new perspective to strain theory by suggesting that access to illegitimate opportunities was unevenly distributed. As a result the types of delinquency and of associated subcultures in which those youth participated would be largely determined by the opportunities presented in the communities where they lived. Cloward and Ohlin said there were three types of delinquent subculture. Firstly, the criminal subculture: This would be found in working class areas where there was already a developed structure of illegitimate opportunities. It was mainly concerned with theft for profit. Secondly, the conflict subculture: This would develop in areas which lacked legitim ate and illegitimate opportunity structures and which were socially disorganised. Delinquent activities would resolve around gang fights. Thirdly the retreatist or double failure subculture: This subculture would be adopted by youths, looking for a deviant solution who did not become involved in one of the other subcultures because of internalised inhibitions or because they tried to do so but failed. Activities were mostly concerned with the use of drugs. An important point about Cloward and Ohlins theory is that for them a delinquent group was one which had delinquency as a central activity. Toby suggest that if they were right gang delinquency would account for less than a tenth of juvenile prosecutions in America. Now if someone asks a question that is, who is the major victim of so called drugs dealing? Obviously the answer is young people of the society. It has already made clear by cloward and ohlin theory, whereby it was stated that the young boys would suffer from problems of adjustment and frustrated ambition. And as a result they could be influenced to take drugs. The cloward and ohlin added a new perspective to strain theory by suggesting that access to illegitimate opportunities was unevenly distributed. As a result the types of delinquency and of associated subcultures in which those youth participated would be a largely determined by the opportunities presented in the communities where they lived. So this frustration about life would lead the young people to commit any crime including drug related crime and misuse of drug. It has been found in the long running Gang history in America whereby a large number of youth involved of taking illegal drugs and misuse of drugs. Drug use can be a problem to the society in two ways : objectively and subjectively .The objective or essentialist perspective defines social problems by the harm that certain condition inflict on the society death , disease, economic cost , a reduction in productivity and so on. The subjective or constructionist perspective defines social problems by the concern certain condition cause and the steps society takes to deal with them. Thus drug use the consumption of alcohol and tobacco included, are problems to society because they harm their users and the rest of us as well .And drug use is also a problem to society because many people fear and are concerned about the consumption of psychoactive substances and try to do something about reducing its extent, through legislation, law enforcement, treatment, media representations, prevention and education. The drug control system of the League of Nations was inherited by the United Nations (UN).   The World Health Organization (WHO) participation is based on a statutory responsibility for evaluating drugs for control.   UN drug control organizations underwent a variety of iterations as new pharmaceutical drugs came to market and natural drugs came under international drug control.   The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) is currently the lead UN drug control organization.   UNODC has approximately 350 staff members worldwide  [3]  . Licensing and regulating the drugs trade would require international agreement to work effectively, with purchase of drugs at source from producers in developing countries. The Uk could go it alone and licence domestic cultivation and supply ,although there will always be a demand for higher quality cannabis resins (e.g. Moroccan Pollen, Charas , Nepalese, Minali etc), although this could partially be supplied by ( potentially very high potency) resins produced from domestic plants  [4]  . The financial effects of legislation and regulation of the drugs trade would have benefits in excise duty VAT, general economic growth and expenditure savings, with modest additional expenditure required to establish a regulatory authority and give the regulator effective teeth to tackle abuse of the system. Biblography: 1. Newburn, T (2009), Key reading s in Criminology, Culmcott , William. 2. Maguire, Morgan Reiner, M, R R (2002),The oxford handbook of Criminology, Cornwall, Oxford. 3. Goode, E (2005), Drugs in American Society, New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies. 4. Gossop, M (1996), Living with Drugs, England, Ashgate Publishing Ltd. 5. Illegal Drug Trade, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade, 03-02-10. 6.Matthew J Atha BSc MSc LL.B, Taxing the UK Drugs Market , http://www.idmu.co.uk/oldsite/pdfs/Taxing%20the%20UK%20Drugs%20Market.pdf ,03-02-10. 7.Drug policy around the World, http://www.drugpolicy.org/global/ungass/history, 02-02-10.

TV Advertising and its Effect on Children Essay -- Television Media Pa

TV Advertising and its Effect on Children Today’s children are unique in many ways from previous generations, but perhaps the most influencing on our young children today is Television advertisements. "In 1997, the nation’s estimated 34 million children age 12 and under will have spent or influenced spending of a record $500 billion" (Horovitz 1997). There is obviously a great deal of interest in this subject, many books have been written, and many studies and reports done on the effects of TV advertising on children. In the following paragraphs we will look at some of the reasons why we advertise to children, some different positive and negative effects of TV advertisement on children, how people can cut through the hype of TV ads and pick good things for their children. Why Do We Advertise to Children? Today, everywhere we go we see some type of advertising. A sale at the supermarket or a billboard for a radio station, are two of the many forms of advertisement. Currently, advertisements that target children are very controversial. Marketers choose children because they can easily lure them in. Advertisers spent $105.97 billion in 1980. This number more than doubled in 2001 when it reached $230 billion (Laws, 2003). In the year 2000, the Census reported 105 million househ0olds in America, meaning advertisers spend an average of $2,190 on one household per year. Advertisers spend this much money because of television. The average child sees an estimate of more than 20,000 commercials every year - that works out to at least 55 commercials per day (Laws, 2003). Children will insist their parents purchase what they see or hear on television. In the 1960's, children had an influence on about $5 billion of their par... ...ront Outlook is Grim.† Advertising Age 72. 11 (2001) : 3 McDonald, Marci and Lavelle, Marianne. â€Å"Call it Kid-fluence.† U.S. News & World Report 131. 4 (2001) : 32 Pine, Karen J and Nash, Avril. â€Å"Dear Santa: The Effects of Television Advertising on Young Children.† International Journal of Behavioral Development 26. 6 (2002) : 529 The American Heritage College Dictionary. Boston: American Heritage, 2002 NYBOR,LLC (1996-2002) Available online: http://www.robynsnest.com/toysafety.htm. McNeal, James (2001). Quoted in McDonald M, Lavelle M. Call it kid-fluence. U.s. News & World Report, July 30, 2001, p.32.Strasburger, Victor C. (2001, June). Children and TV advertising: Nowhere to run, nowhere to hide. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 22, 185. Education Digest (2000, January). Junk-food marketing goes elementary. p, 32.

Impact of Wars on Military Society: The Soldiers and their Families Essay

Wars have been part of human history. What shaped the society that is perceived in this time is a result of conflicts and rivalries that occurred in the past. In almost all places on earth, the scars of war and of battle continue to be seen and commemorated. People are divided in this concept of war. For some, it is a way of life and a means of achieving peace and promoting security in the homeland. For some, it is a conflict of opposing forces where nobody wins, but rather, results into crises and extreme loss of life. Publicists have various definitions on war. According to a book entitled, â€Å"On War† written by General Carl Von Clausewitz, war is simply defined as nothing but a duel between two opposing forces but in an extreme scale. It is a struggle between two sides, whose aim is to apply physical force and compel the opponent to surrender and submit, as well as render him unable to engage in further resistance. It is an act of violence towards another in order to fulfill one’s will (2008). Basically, in war, there is violence. Thus, there is always the possibility of death to even an immense scale. In times of war, a lot of elements are affected such the economy, security, the family, and most importantly, the soldiers themselves. During World War II, there were seemingly immeasurable number of deaths both from the allied forces and the axis powers. The event shook the world and created chaos in various countries around the world. Economies crumbled and government policies were disorganized. In the military society, a large number of soldiers were lost that left their families with trauma to even psychological disorders. This paper discusses these impacts of war on the military society, particularly on the soldiers themselves, as well as their families. Because of the advancement in technology and the increasing lethalness of military weapons, a posing threat emerges for individuals who are deployed in warfare. The environment has become more aggressive. The Effect of War on Soldiers In every war, the most proximate effects are felt by the soldiers. The disorder now called as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder had its roots in World War II. Back then the condition was referred to as battle fatigue. Although cases of the condition were already reported ever since the Civil War, the occurrences were very minimal because of the conflict was waged within the soldiers’ own country. Other than that, the weapons used during that time were not as sophisticated as the weapons in the 21st century. During the First World War, this condition was also evident when the Germans introduced â€Å"gas† warfare. However, it was only during the Second World War that information regarding this condition was widely known (Chermol, 9). During World War II, the most common condition was the mild and non disabling battle fatigue. During initial combat operations, dramatic but transient battle fatigue was eminent. More intense cases were referred to as â€Å"Old Sergeant’s Syndrome† which includes physical and psychological burnout that lasted months after combat (10). For the marines and the aviators, the symptoms of battle fatigue they experienced consisted of increased emotionality, sleep disturbances, fatigue, and exaggerated startled response to sudden movements or noises along with some physical complaints (10). Post Traumatic Stress Disorder became the most common disorder in the military since after its recognition. In a report by the Washington Post dated May 27, 2008, the number of cases for PTSD jumped dramatically to 50 percent in 2007 on US troops. This is because of the military buildup that existed in Iraq and the high level of violence in Afghanistan. According to the report, around 40, 000 troops were already diagnosed with the condition since the year 2003. In a statement, the officials said that there may be more because some military personnel simply refuse to reveal their condition. According to experts, many troops suffer from the symptoms of PTSD, particularly on stress. These include nightmares and flashbacks. They stated that these symptoms can be cured if the treatment is early (Jelinek). PTSD, along with other mental conditions was prevalent in military personnel. In the United States, PTSD was common among military personnel because of longer exposures to combat. In the recent years, as supported by the news article of Washington Post, the number of cases increased because of the increased military activity the country is involved in. The government has been involved in almost all wars since after WWII. Such wars include the Korean War, Vietnam War, the Gulf War, War on Afghanistan, and in Iraq. Soldiers had more combat exposures and some were even sent to two consecutive campaigns. The result is more soldiers deployed in hostile areas and longer combat exposure, increasing the risk of psychological and mental disorders. In an article written by Christine Liddell and Jennifer Kemp in the book â€Å"The Psychological effects of war and violence on children†, they pointed out that the effects of war does not necessarily mean that the soldiers have to be adults. The majority of armed conflicts since the 1970s have happened in the African continent. In most of these conflicts, the effects on children have not yet been documented. The situation in these areas is serious because of the fact that the armed conflict in Africa, children and the youth has found themselves in the front line and participates in the struggle (Leavitt). The only thing that may protect soldiers from experiencing stress leading to psychological disorders while in the front line is hardiness. Paul T. Bartone of the U.  S Military Academy at West Point, New York conducted a study on hardiness being a protection against war-related stress in the army reserve forces. After the Cold War, the number of military personnel has slowly decreased, putting great importance on reserve and National Guard units in the United States. The study explored the personality hardiness as a potential protection among army reserve personnel mobilized for the Persian war. Results of regression analysis showed that hardiness interacted with both combat-related stress and stressful life events. The results suggested that hardiness protects against the negative effects of stress. The study produced a number of implications for military personnel that encounter various types of stress such as battle fatigue and separation from their families (Bartone). On Military Families For every soldier that is deployed in the battle field, there is a family that is separated and also suffers from the effects of war. War results into families without fathers or mothers, husbands or wives. The family that is left behind also suffers certain conditions caused by situations such as separation or death of the soldier in battle. To some families, it leads to cases of divorce and marital conflicts. This section discusses the conditions that families of military personnel are experiencing because of war. Evidence suggesting these problems are provided by the study conducted by Joshua Angrist and John Johnson regarding the effects of work-related absences on families during the Gulf War. They used data from the 1992 Survey of Officers and enlisted personnel. They estimated the divorce rates, spousal employment, and children disability rates caused by the Gulf War. The results of the showed that there were no significant increase in the disability rates in the children of the deployed soldiers. For male soldiers, the deployment of female soldiers resulted to a significant increase in divorce rates and marital dissolutions. This suggests that the deployment of female soldiers causes a strain on marriages (Angrist). In the study, the results also suggested that the husband’s work supply is not affected by the deployment of the wives in war. The extended hours given to soldiers put stress on family relationships and create conflicts between husbands and wives regarding child and house care. These conditions increase the possibility for marital dissolutions that could affect the emotional and psychological well-being of the children. These effects are further supported by the study of Ernest Burgees on the effects of war on the American family. The impact of war upon the family can clearly be observed. These effects are significant in the ongoing process of family life. The observable effects of war include the withdrawal o f men from civilian and entering the military, resulting in to an increase in socially disapproved forms of behaviors. This entrance to the military by the male civilians forces the females to seek employment and enter the industry in order to replace the men that were enlisted in the armed forces. Thus, children begin to be neglected, increasing the number of cases of juvenile delinquency, changes in marriage, divorce, and high birth rates. More serious effects of war on the American family include the increasing trend towards the companionship type of family. It also raised the status of women as a more powerful force that gives support to the family since they engage in industrial jobs that make up for the absence of their husbands. Thus, parents begin to lose their function in the family, especially in their responsibilities towards their children. This resulted to the increase in the number of nursery schools for rearing and tending the needs of children in the preschool age and the extension of government interventions for family security. The family, therefore, experiences a significant shift from being an institution to becoming a companionship type of relationship (Burgees). The number of cases on juvenile delinquency is also one of the impacts of war on military families. In countries such as Canada and England, there has been a 40 to 50 percent increase in the number of youth related violence compared with the pre war years. In the United States, this situation is also manifested in Chicago and in Los Angeles where number of youth crimes have been increasing. This suggests that the effects are caused by the absence of a father, older brother, older sister, or mother figure in the family set up because of their deployment in the military or because of the need to work (344). The family shifts from the institutional to the companionship type because of the increasing number of fathers that are deployed in the military. The companionship type family is more modern since it is a contrast of the institutional, patriarchal type. Family members are no longer subordinates but are now free to engage in self-expression, since this type stresses the interpersonal basis of modern matrimony (347). Even wives of military personnel are exposed to psychological and mental disorders as much as their husbands who are at the front lines. In a study, the effects of combat trauma were investigated. The implications of combat-induced psychopathology were examined. The conditions investigated were wartime combat stress reaction (CSR) and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The results showed that in a sample of 205 wives of Israeli combat veterans of the 1982 Lebanon war, both CSR and PTSD were associated with increased psychiatric symptoms manifested. PTSD was found to contribute to the wives’ social impairment in a number of contests such as feelings of loneliness, impaired marital and family relations, which extends to a wider range of their social networks (Solomon, et al. ). Hardships in the Modern Military Society In a report prepared by Kari Huus of MSNBC, the condition of American soldiers were revealed through testimonies given by families and other persons about the extended time of deployment given to enlisted personnel. According to the report, the U.  S military has stretched thin its military personnel after more than four years in Iraq and six years in Afghanistan. During this time, military personnel were repeatedly deployed in the warzone with decreasing dwell times between their postings have reached its toll on the families and loved ones of the personnel. Families are beginning to feel exhausted and stressed because of the separation that has been happening more frequently. Anxiety is also one of the problems experienced by families who are always waiting for phone calls from their loved one. According to one testimony by a wife of a soldier, she experiences fears of the worst kind as she imagines what if the calls would stop. The possibility that this would happen is when someone in the company has been killed and all phone lines are to be cut off until the closest kin to the dead personnel has been notified. The prolonged conflicts involved with the United States has forced it army to repeatedly deploy soldiers in the warzone. According to military experts, this sort of scenario was never intended to reach this level. As a result, soldiers begin to experience hallucinations and different psychological disorders which lead some military personnel to take their own life. The children of military fathers also suffer since they seem to sense a number of changes in their fathers after they have gone home after their deployment (Huus). Conclusions As stated in the previous pages, war is basically a duel between two opposing forces in order to resolve a conflict. The only difference is that war is being done in a massive scale. The consequences of this conflict are manifested in the lives of the members of the military society, particularly on the soldiers and their families. The impact of war on the soldiers consists of psychological and mental difficulties such as battle, fatigue, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder. These conditions tend to endure in their lives even after the war, which can cause disturbances in other aspects of their lives, most especially on their families. As much what the soldiers are suffering, families left behind by soldiers also suffer emotional and psychological difficulties. Marital relationships have the potential to encounter problems and children also suffer from the absence of their father, mother, or older sibling, brought about by war. The studies and other literature in this paper suggest that the introduction of new interventions regarding troop deployment should be sought, as well as securing the emotional and psychological well-being of soldiers and families, while many still question the significance of war on the development of the society.

Nutritional Sources and Salinity - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2546 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2019/02/20 Category Health Essay Level High school Tags: Nutrition Essay Did you like this example? Abstract In the laboratory, Serratia marcescens was utilized to test Growth and Prodigiosin production under various environmental factors. The environmental conditions were temperature, pH, oxygen availability, nutritional sources, and salinity. The temperatures tested were 4 degrees Celsius, 25 degrees Celsius, and 65 degrees Celsius, and the pH values were (3, 7, 11). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Nutritional Sources and Salinity" essay for you Create order The carbon source was maltose and glucose. The salinity measurements consisted of 0.1% NaCl, 1.0% NaCl, and 3.0% NaCl. Lastly, the oxygen requirement was tested by using two groups, one group was tested using aeration (shaking), and one group was tested with no aeration (no shaking). The results indicate that optimal growth was experienced at a temperature of 65 degrees Celsius, a pH of 7, NaCl concentration of 0.1% and no aeration. Prodigiosin production was affected under most of the same conditions, for example, it experienced optimal growth at a temperature of 65 degrees Celsius, a pH of 7, and the same carbon source. However, results differ because Prodigiosin production experiences a higher rate at a salt concentration of 3% NaCl, and, under conditions of no aeration. Introduction Serratia marcescens is a pathogenic bacterium that invades humans and mimics the red color of blood making it hard to detect. S. marcescens was once considered a harmless saprophyte, which is a type of microorganism that lives on dead or decaying organic matter. However, S. marcescens is now recognized as a significant opportunistic pathogen which has a tendency to create healthcare related infection and antimicrobial resistance (Herra and Falkiner 1984). Prodigiosin is an antifungal red pigment produced by S. marcescens, it holds antibacterial, antimalarial, and antifungal activities, however, it is used primarily as a biochemical tool (NCBI 2014). Although bacteria are highly adaptable in nature, which is why they are found in nearly every place on earth, certain environmental conditions affect optimal growth for different types of bacteria. For instance, most disease-causing bacteria thrive in warm temperatures, which is why the human body provides an ideal environment for many types of bacteria to grow. On the other hand, some bacteria are able to survive in freezing temperatures of 5 degrees Celsius, yet other types of bacteria would not survive in temperatures below 60 degrees Celsius (Wagner 2008). In another way, optimal growth of bacteria is affected by pH. pH is used to classify the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution, pH values range from 1.0 (very acidic) to 14.0 (very basic). Most bacterium grow best around a neutral pH value (7). However, some bacteria thrive in very basic conditions, yet some can tolerate a pH of 1.0 (Blamire 2000). Carbon sources also play a significant role in the growth of bacteria. Carbon is known as the structural backbone of organic compounds, and each carbon source may support different bacterial growth rates. Salinity is the amount of salt dissolved in an amount of water, the percent of sodium chloride present in the solution used for this lab accounts for the salinity. Because bacteria are extraordinarily diverse, certain types of bacteria thrive in salty environments while others do not. For example, research suggests that S. Marcescens is highly adaptable to salty environments and can continue to reproduce under harsh conditions (classified as 80 g/L) and extreme conditions (classified as 100 g/L salt concentrations) (Ketola and Hiltunen 2014). On the other hand, oxygen requirements, also known as aeration or no aeration play an important role in the growth of bacteria. Aeration is believed to stimulate the growth of bacteria because it provides much needed oxygen to the environment f or bacteria to use for growth and development (Mattick 1940). Such environmental conditions affect the metabolic functioning of bacteria, and as a result the growth of the cell. S. marcescens is a bacterium which, like many others, requires a relatively warm temperature, neutral pH, and a low salt concentration to experience optimal growth. The objectives of this laboratory are to develop an experiment which will test the impact of environmental conditions on the growth of S. Marcescens and prodigiosin, to understand how different experimental conditions affect bacterial growth and prodigiosin production, and to gain a better understanding of the stages of the bacterial growth curve the production of prodigiosin throughout the growth cycle of S. Marcescens. In order to address each objective, students were separated into groups and each group focused on one environmental condition. This allowed each group to fully test and experiment the possible implications of their environmental condition. For each group, a proper lab protocol was created and followed accordingly. After testing the condition through a series of experiments, each group recorded their dat a and made it available to all other groups. In order to obtain the most thorough results possible, and to ensure the experiment was carried out as accurately as possible, it is important to generate hypotheses which can be compared to the acquired end results. For instance, the null hypothesis for temperature expects that temperature will not have an effect on the growth of S. marcescens or Prodigiosin production. While the alternative hypothesis for temperature expects that temperature will have an effect on the growth of S. marcescens and/or Prodigiosin production. The null hypothesis for pH expects that pH values will not have an effect on the growth of S. marcescens or Prodigiosin production. And, the alternative hypothesis claims pH values will have an effect on the growth of S. marcescens and/or Prodigiosin production. The null hypothesis for the carbon source condition expects that different carbon sources will not have an effect on the growth of S. marcescens or Prodigiosin production. While the alternative hypothesis for the carbon source condition expects that carbon sources will cause an increase or decrease on the growth of S. marcescens and/or Prodigiosin production. The null hypothesis for the NaCl concentration condition, also known as salinity, expects that sodium chloride concentrations will not affect the growth of S. marcescens or Prodigiosin production. However, the alternative hypothesis expects that differing sodium chloride concentrations will cause and increase/decrease on the growth of S. marcescens and/or Prodigiosin production. The null hypothesis for the oxygen requirement Suggests that there will be no difference in the growth of S. marcescens and Prodigiosin production due to aeration or no aeration. While the alternative hypothesis suggests that depending on the condition, aeration or no aeration, an effect on the growth of S. marcescens and/or Prodigiosin production will occur. The null hypothesis in each condition suggests that no change will occur, regardless of the environmental condition. The primary purpose of the null hypothesis is for scientists to reject or disprove it, it is impossible to accept the null hypothesis, in a scenario where the null hypothesis is not rejected, it would simply be said that it failed to be rejected. And, the alterative hypothesis is simply the opposite of the null hypothesis. Materials and Methods The environmental condition tested in this experiment was oxygen requirement. The oxygen requirement refers to the practice of using aeration (shaking) or no aeration (no shaking) during the experiment. Aeration is important because it provides oxygen to bacteria, and it is commonly believed that aeration helps to increase optimal growth/prodigiosin production. In order to carry out this experiment and to test the effects of aeration/no aeration, the lab group had to utilize a machine called a Spectrophotometer. Sterile technique was used to remove 2mL of fresh media which was then pipetted into two cuvettes and set as blanks. Sterile technique was used again to remove 2 ml of each of the S. Marcescens cultures, Culture a which was shaken at 30 C, and Culture b which was not shaken at 30 C, into a cuvette. The spectrophotometer was set to 499 wavelength and measurements were recorded for each culture group after blanking. Next, the spectrophotometer was set to read absorbances at 600 wavelength and measurements were recorded for each culture after blanking. These steps were repeated every 30 minutes for the course of 180 minutes. Finally, after obtaining all necessary measurements, each S. Marcescens culture was returned to their respective incubators. The full dataset obtained through this group can be found in Figures 5 10. This group found that bacterial growth was higher when no aeration was implemented, and prodigiosin production experienced a higher rate during no aeration as well. The equation A499/(OD600 x 5.8108 cell/ml x 2 ml)= units of prodigiosin per cell was utilized to calculate prodigiosin production. Results The graphs pictured above show a complete summary of all the data collected throughout the experiment. Each graph shows data points that were collected and recorded every 30 minutes throughout the testing period, for both Growth and Prodigiosin Production. For temperature, the graph (Figure 1) indicates that optimal bacterial growth was reached at a temperature of 25 degrees Celsius. Yet, growth was more consistent at a temperature of 65 degrees Celsius, this in agreement with the idea that most bacteria tend to thrive in environments of higher temperatures. However, consistency alone is not effective at drawing a proper conclusion, so due to the growth curve, 25 degrees provides for optimal growth. Likewise, optimal growth was reached when the pH stayed at 7 consistently. This result was expected as many bacteria, including S. marcescens, thrive in neutral conditions. And, S. marcescens remained constant throughout the carbon source experiment, there was no rapid increase/decrease o f S. marcescens, this can be expected due to the fact that carbon is a substance found in all organic matter and is the backbone of all living organisms. Next, it was revealed that optimal growth was reached when the concentration of NaCl was at 0.1% NaCl, again, this is expected as most bacteria are not able to survive in environments that are high in NaCl. Lastly, it was determined that S. marcescens reached optimal growth under conditions of no aeration, this is different than what was expected as it is believed that aeration provides stimulation for growing bacteria. Prodigiosin production experienced a more significant increase at a temperature of 65 degrees Celsius and a pH of 7, the same temperature and pH which was consistent with optimal bacterial growth. And, carbon source also remained the same throughout this part of the experiment. However, salinity experienced a significant shift, for instance, growth was more optimal at an NaCl concentration of 0.1%, yet prodigiosin production experienced a higher rate at 3.0% NaCl. While prodigiosin production did decrease with aeration, there was a more significant decrease in no aeration, this is contradictive to the Aeration vs. Growth graph, and in agreement with scientific research. Discussion The objective of this experiment was to test the effect of various environmental conditions and on the growth and Prodigiosin production of S. Marcescens. In order to efficiently and accurately detect any possible change that these environmental conditions had we composed two different hypotheses, a null and an alternative. The null hypotheses suggest that the various factors would not significantly alter the amount of growth or Prodigiosin production. On the other hand, the alternative hypothesis speculated that each of the environmental conditions would significantly change the growth or Prodigiosin production of the S. Marcescens in comparison to the bacterial scientific conventional wisdom. While this numerical change in the alternative hypothesis was not initially mentioned, it would later be calculated following the completion of the experiment. Following the experiment and analysis of data, the results were both revealing and expected. In the end, each of the environmental con ditions had an effect on growth and Prodigiosin production, some of these effects were expected, while others came as a surprise, such as the observation that no aeration provided more optimal growth for S. Marcescens. As it was aforementioned in the results paragraph, some of the manipulated variables yielded results parallel to the umbrella beliefs on optimal bacteria growth. The S. Marcescens had the highest optimal growth when exposed to a temperature of 65 degrees Celsius (Figure 1). It was revealed that optimal growth occurred at 65 degrees Celsius, and at a pH of 7. This is consistent with scientific data that suggests a neutral pH and high temperature are optimal conditions for bacterial growth (Herra and Falkiner 1984). In a similar sense, results showed that optimal growth was reached at an NaCl concentration of 0.1%, this is in agreement with scientific research which states that bacteria grow best in an environment with a low salt concentration. On the other hand, it was revealed that optimal growth was reached during conditions of no aeration, which is contradictive to the idea that aeration provides important stimulation to bacteria (Mattick 1940). As for Prodigiosin production, results stayed in agreement with optimal growth, with the exception of aeration. It was revealed that the rate of Prodigiosin production experienced an increase during conditions of aeration. Difficulties that may have impacted the results of this experiment were kept at a minimum, and if any occurred, they were minor. For example, groups relied on each other to relay correct information throughout the experiment, and since each group had a different environmental condition, it was nearly impossible to indicate whether the information being relayed was correct. If a group made a slight mistake or accidentally relayed the wrong information, it is unlikely that the error would have been caught and corrected, which could result in possible errors and inaccuracies in the end. With the exception of the oxygen requirement, the growth results obtained in this experiment support the findings by others based on the literature research. As mentioned, temperature, pH, carbon sources, and salinity are in agreement with the results of others. The Prodigiosin production results are the most supportive of the findings of others, as every environmental factor is in agreement with that of other scientific data, while in the growth section, aeration was the only one that separated from a common trend in thought. In order to enhance Prodigiosin production, it would be important to increase the amount of S. Marcescens used in this laboratory experiment. The more S. Marcescens we are able to use, the more Prodigiosin production will occur, and likely the results will become more accurate. In order to continue working on this project, it would be wise to consider adding more environmental factors and to further test the ones that have already been used. For instance, it would be a good idea to test more temperatures other than the three that are being used, and to test more pH values than the current three. All conditions can be expanded on, and it would provide more information and accurate details to expand more on each one. Other nutritional requirements such as energy source, nitrogen source, and mineral source would be interesting to look at since they all provide important chemical nutrients, and by doing this, we would be able to determine more accurately the effects of the current nutritional requirements. Works Cited Blamire, John. Properties of Microbes. BIOdotEDU, 2000, www.brooklyn.cuny.edu/bc/ahp/CellBio/Growth/MGpH.html. Herra, Celine, and Frederick Falkiner. Serratia Marcescens. Brief History of Bacillus Anthracis, www.antimicrobe.org/b26.asp. Ketola, Tarmo, and Teppo Hiltunen. Advances in Pediatrics., U.S. National Library of Medicine, Oct. 2014, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4242574/. Mattick, A. T. R., et al. AN INSULATED BOX FOR THE CARRIAGE OF MILK SAMPLES. Wiley Online Library, Wiley/Blackwell (10.1111), 11 Mar. 2008, www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1365-2672.1940.tb03933.x. Prodigiosin. National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Compound Database, U.S. National Library of Medicine, pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Prodigiosin. Wagner, Al B. Bacterial Food Poisoning | Food Technology Processing. Wine Cup, 2008, aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/food-technology/bacterial-food-poisoning/.